Methods and systems for imaging bulk motional velocities in plasmas

ABSTRACT

A method and apparatus for imaging the distribution of bulk motional velocities in plasmas such as inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions. This method and apparatus use multiple narrow-band x-ray crystal imaging systems, one or more of which have a bandpass tuned to lie within the Doppler-broadened emission line profile of a suitable plasma emission line. Crystals tuned on the one end of the profile will preferentially reflect x-rays from plasma ions moving towards the crystals, while crystals tuned to another end of the profile will preferentially reflect x-rays from plasma ions moving away from the crystals.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract No.DE-AC52-06NA25946 and was awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy,National Nuclear Security Administration. The government has certainrights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

A plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the othersbeing solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma behavior may be extraordinarilyvaried and subtle. In particular, hydrodynamic motion in implodingplasmas is not well diagnosed at all relevant spatial scales. It hasbeen theorized that bulk macroscopic motion can be imparted to regionsof imploding plasmas by three-dimensional effects, serving as a sink forenergy that would otherwise go towards heating the plasma. However,there has been no ability to directly diagnose such motion.

It is known that astronomers utilize Doppler shifted electromagneticradiation emission as a diagnostic of material motion in space. This istypically a direct time-domain frequency measurement in the radio regionof the spectrum, and measures line-of-sight velocities in objects suchas nebulae and galaxies Likewise, Doppler shift analysis of sound andlight waves is known.

SUMMARY

To overcome drawbacks in the prior art, proposed is plasma analysisusing Doppler shift principles. This diagnostic capability will benefitin-laboratory plasma analysis, such as for example, but not limited to,inertial confinement fusion (ICF), where analyzing ignition behavior(such as for example at the National Ignition Facility (NIF)) has beenattributed in various venues to transfer of implosion energy to (unseenand undiagnosed) bulk rotational motion. However, laboratory plasmas aresmall and extremely hot and thus pose challenges for accurate diagnosedby radio-frequency measurements of Doppler shifts. To overcome thedrawbacks of the prior art, it has been found that spectral-domainmeasurements of Doppler wavelength shifts are practical, and can beextended to imaging diagnostics if the imaging system spectral bandpassis small.

Proposed is to utilize near-normal-incidence, spherical or ellipsoidalimaging crystals as narrowband x-ray imaging systems for diagnosis ofbulk motion in laboratory plasmas such as ICF implosions. An array ofimaging crystals, one or more of which have a bandpass that is narrowcompared with the Doppler profile of a suitable plasma emission line, ornarrower than the Doppler profile of a suitable plasma emission line areproposed for use. One or more of the imaging crystal are tuned to aslightly different part of the Doppler profile, to generate an array ofquasi-monochromatic images. The crystals tuned to predetermined ionswithin the plasma emission lines will produce monochromatic images thatare brighter in certain regions which are emitting x-rays that arereflected by and detected by a particular detector. By combining themonochromatic images from the crystals tuned to wavelengths or ionswithin the plasma emission lines, it can be determined where the plasmais moving and which sections of the plasma are moving towards or awayfrom the crystals, and a color-coded map of bulk motion within theplasma may be reconstructed from the monochromatic images.

The technology for producing images using crystals is known (e.g. E.Forster et al., Laser Particle Beams 9, 135 (1991)), but this particularapplication, arrangement, and type of array of crystals is novel. Theinstrument could, in one embodiment, be a 10-channel system built forelectron temperature measurements of implosion plasmas at OsakaUniversity (I. Uschmann et al., Applied Optics 39, 5865 (2000)). Howeverthis system would not function for the purpose of the intendedinnovation because the bandpass of each crystal is too wide, and thewavelength separation of the different bands is incorrect, since thisapplication benefits from monochromatic imaging within theDoppler-broadened profile of a single emission line, rather than inwidely separated bands viewing different emission lines.

Other applications include analysis of larger, cooler plasmas.Furthermore, the same method and apparatus could work in absorptionusing a large broadband backlight, potentially allowing diagnosis ofbulk motion in explosives-driven implosions.

In summary, disclosed is a novel method and apparatus for imaging thedistribution of bulk motional velocities in plasmas such as inertialconfinement fusion (ICF) implosions. This innovation uses multiplenarrow-band x-ray crystal imaging systems, one or more of which have abandpass tuned to lie within the Doppler-broadened emission line profileof a suitable plasma emission line. Crystals tuned on the one end of theprofile will preferentially reflect x-rays from plasma ions movingtowards the crystals, while crystals tuned to another end of the profilewill preferentially reflect x-rays from plasma ions moving away from thecrystals. Software analysis may produce images which have or show acolor-coded map of bulk motional velocities. This is an importantmeasurement capability that does not currently exist, and could have anenormous impact on ICF progress at facilities such as the NationalIgnition Facility (NIF). Many other applications can also be envisionedfor other application for high-energy-density physics (HEDP) and testfacilities.

It is further contemplated that the method may process simulated datafrom a realistic (3D) simulation of an implosion plasma. It is alsocontemplated that refinement of the design parameters to adjust variousfactors may occur, such as the crystal or aperture dimensions, withoutdeparting from the scope of the innovation. In one or more embodiments,the method and apparatus is configured for use with backlit absorptionimaging of cold plasmas, such as but not limited to explosive-drivenimplosions.

A system is disclosed herein for detecting bulk motional velocities in aplasma that includes a crystal array comprising at least two crystallinereflectors such that the reflectors are tuned to reflect x-rays of aparticular wavelength within a single emission band from the plasma tocreate reflected x-rays. The system also includes two or more detectorsconfigured to receive reflected x-rays and generate detector output suchthat each detector is associated with a x-ray wavelength and thedetector output is combinable to represent a bulk material velocity ofthe plasma.

In one embodiment the two or more detector comprises film. The angledefined by the one of the at least two crystalline reflectors and anx-ray path reflected from a crystalline reflector to one of the two orthe one or more detectors is between 80 and 90 degrees. It iscontemplated that the system further comprises at least one shielddisposed between a plasma being observed and the two or more detectors.The system may further comprise a processing device, at least onememory, and a display such that the processing device is configured toexecute machine readable instructions stored on the memory, which whenexecuted, cause the system to receive data from the detector. The datacomprises information for monochromatic images corresponding to x-raysreflected by the at least two crystalline reflectors and then processthe data to individually code the monochromatic images and overlay themonochromic images to produce a composite image such that the compositeimage shows Doppler shifts within the single emission band.

In one embodiment, the system further comprises a collimator configuredto narrow a beam of the x-rays that are reflected by the crystal array,slits configured to control the divergence of the x-rays, and at leastone filter configured to block or filter out one or more wavelengths orenergy bands in the x-ray spectrum.

Also disclosed is a method for detecting bulk motional velocities in aplasma. This exemplary method comprises identifying a predeterminedx-ray emission band emanating from the plasma, tuning two or morecrystalline reflectors within a crystal array to reflect x-rays withinthe predetermined emission band, reflecting the x-rays from the plasmaonto a detector such that the detector comprises one or more detectors.The method then generates monochromatic images corresponding to thex-rays reflected by the two or more crystalline reflectors and combinesthe monochromatic images into a composite image to identify bulkmotional velocities within the plasma.

In one embodiment, the two or more crystalline reflectors have abandpass that is narrow compared with a Doppler profile of the emissionband. The detector(s) may comprises at least one of an image plate; aCCD, CMOS, an N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor, or other image sensorcamera; film; photographic film; or a gated micro channel platedetector. The combining step may include color coding the monochromaticimages. In one configuration, the two or more crystal reflectors reflectx-rays emanating from the plasma at different orientations with respectto the plasma. The meridional plane of plane of the crystallinereflectors may be set at the equatorial plane of the plasma.

Also disclosed is a system for detecting bulk motional velocities in aplasma and this system include a crystal array tuned to reflect x-rayshaving a predetermined emission line, one or more detectors configuredto detect x-rays reflected from the crystal array, one or more shieldsconfigured to block the one or more detectors from x-rays emanatingdirectly from the plasma, and a processor configured to receive imageinformation from the one or more detectors. The image informationcomprises monochromatic images of the x-rays reflected by the crystalarray and the processor is also configured to combine the monochromaticimage into a composite image showing Doppler shifts within the emissionline.

In one variation, the crystal array comprises two or more crystallinereflectors tuned to different center wavelengths about a centerwavelength of a profile of the predetermined emission line. A createdcomposite image may be a color coded image of the monochromatic imagesoverlaid on top of each other. The angle defined by the one of thecrystalline reflectors and an x-ray path reflected from the onecrystalline reflector to the one or more detectors is between 80 and 90degrees. It is contemplated that the system may further comprise acollimator configured to narrow a beam of the x-rays that are reflectedby the crystal array, slits configured to control the divergence of thex-rays, and at least one filter configured to block or filter out one ormore wavelengths or energy bands in the x-ray spectrum.

Other systems, methods, features and advantages of the invention will beor will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination ofthe following figures and detailed description. It is intended that allsuch additional systems, methods, features and advantages be includedwithin this description, and be within the scope of the invention. Whilevarious embodiments of the invention have been described, it will beapparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many moreembodiments and implementations are possible that are within the scopeof this invention. In addition, the various features, elements, andembodiments described herein may be claimed or combined in anycombination or arrangement.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example system for imagingbulk motional velocities in plasmas according to one embodiment.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary crystal array anddetector, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 3 shows an exemplary method for imaging bulk motional velocities,according to one exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 4A shows a number of monochromatic images representing materialvelocities according to embodiment.

FIG. 4B shows a combined image of material velocities according to oneembodiment.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing example or representative computingdevices and associated elements.

The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasisinstead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.In the figures, like reference numerals designate corresponding partsthroughout the different views.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example system for imagingbulk motional velocities in plasmas. This is but one possibleconfiguration and as such, one or more elements of FIG. 1 may besubstituted with or replaced by other elements, as described below or asunderstood by one of ordinary skill in the art, without departing fromthe scope of the invention. As discussed below, the source of the x-raysmay vary based on application and the detector may vary based on theapplication and nature of imaging.

Turning now to FIG. 1, a source 108 is shown which directs energy or anyemissions, such as x-rays on an x-ray path 112 to a detector 130 afterreflection by an array of two or more crystals 140. Although shown as asingle path, it is contemplated that multiple paths may be present inthis and other embodiments. The crystals in the array 140 could be flat,spherical, or ellipsoidal. In this embodiment, the source 108 may be anAg based x-ray source. In one example, Ru or Ag He-α imaging of burninginertial confinement fusion cores may serve as the source, or any typeplasma that emit x-ray radiation, subject to the Bragg condition beingmet for the crystal array 140 and x-ray wavelength relationship. Thesource 108 may comprise any type of event that emits x-ray radiation,such as a plasma.

An x-ray path 112 emanates from the source 108. The x-ray path passesthrough an optional collimator 116. The collimator 116 is a known deviceand is configured to narrow a beam of particles or waves to cause thex-rays to become more aligned in a specific direction or to cause thespatial cross-section of the x-rays to become smaller. After the x-raypath 112 passes through the collimator 116, the path enters or passesthrough one or more slits 120 configured to control or establish thedivergence of the x-ray beam. Slits 120 are generally known by one ofordinary skill in the art and as such are not described in detailherein. Slits 120 or an equivalent may be purchased from Newport® Inc.located in Irvine, Calif.

Between the source 108 and a detector 130 is one or more shields 124which prevent or inhibit errant x-rays from reaching the crystals 140and the detector 130. The arrangement of shields 124 shown in FIG. 1 isexemplary and other shielding layouts are contemplated. The shields 124may comprise lead or any other material(s) capable of absorbing x-rayenergy.

After the slits 120, the x-ray path 112 is directed to the crystal array140. Any type of crystal material may be utilized that meets the Braggcondition and the ability of the crystal and the crystal alignment toreflect the x-rays of interest. Two or more crystals may be used in thearray 140, as will be described in more detail below. In thisembodiment, the crystal array 140 comprises germaniums crystals having ahigh Miller index, such as Ge (9,7,3), or Ge (11,3,3). The alignment ofthe crystals is such that the angle θ_(B) is generally between 80degrees and 90 degrees.

After reflection or re-direction of the x-rays of interest from thecrystal array 140, the x-rays are presented to a filter 154. Multiplefilters may be present when multiple x-ray paths 112 exist. An x-rayfilter is a device to block or filter out some or all wavelengths orenergy bands in the x-ray spectrum. The filter 154 may be placed beforeor after the crystals 140. The filter 154 may be configured to allowonly a single X-ray wavelength to penetrate to the crystals 140 or fromthe crystals 140. The filter 154 may also be selected based onscattering and the diffraction distance. In this configuration thefilter is a Cu (copper) based filter but in other embodiments orconfigurations other filters types or materials may be adopted for use.

A detector 130 receives the x-rays that pass through the filter 114along the x-ray path 112. The detector 130 may comprise any typedetector capable of capturing and recording x-ray emissions. In oneconfiguration the detector 130 is capable of x-ray imaging. The detector130 may comprise but is not limited to an image plate, a CCD or CMOScamera, film, photographic film, a gated micro channel plate detector,which is similar to CCD but with rapid action gates, or any other typedetector capable detecting x-rays of interest. More than one detector130 may be provided when multiple x-ray paths exist.

In certain embodiments a processing device 160, such as a computer orspecialized electronics, connects to the detector to receive anelectrical signal indicating or representing x-ray data. The processingdevice 160 may process the data to form an image, which may be printedor displayed on a display or screen 168. A memory 164 is provided andstores machine readable code in a non-transitory state that isexecutable by the processing device to perform the analysis of the datafrom the detector 130. The memory 154 may also store the data.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary crystal array anddetector, according to one embodiment. In FIG. 2, an array of crystals240 is shown that reflect x-rays from a plasma 208 towards a detector230. The array of crystals 240 includes near-normal-incidence crystalsthat can provide high-brightness, large solid-angle, andquasi-monochromatic x-ray images. Several crystals may be arranged andtuned to different center wavelengths within a profile of apredetermined emission line to produce a multi-spectral image. Themulti-spectral image maps wavelength shift to line-of-sight velocities.In this way, the bulk-motional velocities of a plasmas can be imaged anddetected.

In the example shown in FIG. 2, five crystals 241, 242, 243, 244, and245 are arranged to reflect different center wavelengths of apredetermined emission line. In other words, the crystals are tuned tobandwidths that correspond to very narrow regions of wavelengths withina given emission line. The combination of the wavelengths of each of thecrystals in the array 240 are configured to encompass with width of thepredetermined emission line. It is preferable to tune the crystal'snarrow emission lines being emitted from the plasma 208. While fivecrystals are shown in FIG. 2, any number of crystals may be used. Thenumber of crystals used provides different resolutions of the bandwidthsreflected by the crystal array 240. Further, the placement of thecrystals within the array 240 may be adjusted as desired. However, toavoid parallax complications, the crystals should be arranged (closelyor in an array) to obtain a similar line of sight as other crystals inthe array 240.

FIG. 3 shows an exemplary method for imaging bulk motional velocities,according to one exemplary embodiment. In the description belowcorresponding to FIG. 3, a specific exemplary configuration will bedescribed to aid in understanding. However, many other configurationsmay be used depending on the application and the plasma of interest tobe imaged.

First, in step 302, an emission band of interest emanating from theplasma is identified. In one example, the above described system is usedto detect bulk motional velocities in an implosion plasma, or any othertype of plasma or x-ray emitting event. In this example, the emissionband to be observed is a Ge He-alpha ¹P₁ emission line having an upperstate component centered about a wavelength of λ=1.2061 Å. In otherembodiments, other emission lines may be studied.

In step 304, two or more crystals in the crystal array are tuned toreflect x-rays at intervals less than a width of the emission band ofinterest. In the present example, the crystal array 240 is comprised ofQuartz crystals having the following properties: miller indices of 0 71, 2d=1.2067827 Å, Δθ=28.2 μrad at λ=1.2061 Å, R_(p)=0.9, and(E/ΔE=1.05×10⁶). The crystals are configured with a 2.8 mm squareaperture at an object distance of p=200 mm, operating at 31×magnification. In other embodiments, other crystal types and tunings maybe utilized.

In this setup, the emission line is thermal Doppler broadened withT_(i)=4 keV (ΔE=5.9 eV FWHM Gaussian). The object being observed in thisinstance is a rotating core of implosion plasma 40 μm in diameter, witha exemplary velocity at R=20 μm of 120 μm/ns. As mentioned above, thecrystals in the array 240 are tuned to about the center wavelength ofthe emission line. In this setup, the crystal 241 is tuned to a centralwavelength of λ₁=1.2056177 Å, the crystal 242 is tuned to a centralwavelength of λ₂=1.2058588 Å, the crystal 243 is tuned to a centralwavelength of λ₃=1.2061 Å, the crystal 244 is tuned to a centralwavelength of λ₄=1.2063412 Å, and the crystal 245 is tuned to a centralwavelength of λ₅=1.2065825 Å to span ±120 μm/ns shifts. This correspondsto an angle θ_(B) (see FIG. 1) of 87.482, 87.76, 88.07, 88.45, and 88.96degrees for the crystals in the array 240, respectively. The meridionalplane of plane of all of the crystals should preferably be set to be theequatorial plane of the rotating plasma to avoid parallax complications.In other embodiments, other numeric values will be present.

In step 306, the crystals in the crystal array 240 reflect the x-raysonto a detector 230. As explained above, the detector may comprise anysuitable configuration including film, an image sensor such as a CCD orCMOS sensor, and the like, or any detector sensor that will detect thepresent of x-rays. The x-rays captured by the detector 230 are used tocreate at least one monochromatic image for each of the crystallinereflectors used in the crystal array 240. In this example, fivemonochromatic images 231, 232, 233, 234, 235 are detected on thedetector 230 that correspond to x-rays reflected by the five crystals241, 242, 243, 244, 245, respectively.

FIG. 4A shows a number of monochromatic two-dimensional images 431, 432,433, 434, 435 generated on the detector 230. In the example embodiment,providing a separate detector for each x-ray path results in the fivedetector outputs as shown in FIG. 4A. The plasma emits x-rays of manydifferent wavelengths λ₁ through λ₅. All of the wavelengths strike thecrystal array. Each crystal is designed, selected or tuned to adifferent x-ray wavelength thereby only reflecting a particularwavelength of x-ray from the group of x-rays which strike a crystal. Asshown in FIGS. 2 and 4A, the reflection from is focused to a point onthe detector. The particular x-rays which are reflected from aparticular crystal strike a detector as shown in FIG. 4A such that eachcrystal's reflection is shown in a different detector. Associationbetween x-ray wavelength and an associated detector are establishedthereby mapping the x-ray wavelength to a detector. As shown, thepattern on the detector shows where the x-rays strike the detector andthe presence, location, density, and pattern of the x-rays of aparticular wavelength. In one embodiment, all the crystals reflect thesame wavelength and movement of that wavelength can be tracked over timeif the detectors are placed at different locations or the x-rays areotherwise adjusted for time. In one embodiment the crystals reflectdifferent wavelengths thereby disclosing the location of each wavelengthof x-ray in the plasma based on where the x-rays strike the detector.

Different wavelengths of the x-rays striking the crystal may be due tomovement of the plasma that is emitting the x-rays. This is known asDoppler shift. This allows the data from each detector to correlate tomovement of the plasma. For example, if it is known that the wavelengthfor a stationery plasma, then shift up or down in wavelength revealmotion information.

The monochromatic images, which are two-dimensional, correspond to thewavelengths reflected onto the detector 230 by the crystals in thecrystal array 240. As shown in FIG. 4A, the monochromatic images 431,432 generated by the crystals tuned to wavelengths shorter than thecenter wavelength of the emission band of interest (λ₁ and λ₂) showconcentrations of detected x-rays skewed towards the right. Themonochromatic images 434, 435 generated by the crystals tuned towavelengths longer than the center wavelength of the emission band ofinterest (λ₄ and λ₅) show concentrations of detected x-rays skewedtowards the left.

From these two-dimensional images 431-435, based on the Doppler effect,it can be seen that the area of the core of the plasma 208 shown in theimages 431, 432 is moving towards the crystal array 240, while the areaof the core of the plasma 208 shown in the images 434, 435 is movingaway from the crystal array 240. Thus, each two-dimensional image431-435 represents the area of the plasma being imaged and the detectorstrikes (dots on each image 431-435) represent x-rays emitted from theplasma at the particular wavelength that is reflected by a particularcrystal, for example, wavelengths λ₁ through λ₅.

Returning to FIG. 3, in step 310, the monochromatic images are combinedto identify bulk material velocities within the plasma being observed.The monochromatic images 431-435 are each coded and overlaid against oneanother to create a final image mapping the velocities within theplasma. For example, each of the monochromatic images may becolor-coded. In one instance, the results from image 431 may be codedblue, the results from image 432 may be coded green, the results fromimage 433 may be coded yellow, the results from image 434 may be codedorange, and the results from image 435 may be coded red. The resultingcombined image would thus show by color which portions of the plasma aremoving towards the crystal array 240, and which portions are moving awayfrom the crystal array 240.

FIG. 4B shows a combined two-dimensional image of material velocitiesaccording to one embodiment.

In FIG. 4B, when color is unavailable, the two dimensional images431-435 may be coded differently to produce the combined image 470. Inthis example, the results from image 431 are coded with a square symbol(□), the results from image 432 are coded with a circular symbol (∘),the results for image 433 are coded with a plus symbol (+), the resultsfrom image 434 are coded with an x symbol (x), and the results fromimage 435 are coded with an asterisk symbol (*). The code represents thewavelength of the reflected x-ray. The combined two-dimensional image470 thus shows which areas of the plasma 208 are moving towards thecrystal array 240, and which areas are moving away from the crystalarray 240. The coded image 470 in FIG. 4B may also be representative ofthe color coded image described above.

Other modifications are also possible. For example, while fivecrystalline reflectors are used in the above example, less than orgreater than five reflectors may be used. Additional detectors may beused, such as one detector for each wavelength. The number of reflectorsis dependent on the intervals of wavelengths within an emission banddesired for a particular application. Further, more than one crystalarray may be used to observe a plasma. For example, a first crystalarray may be configured at a first orientation with respect to theplasma, and a second crystal array may be configured at a secondorientation with respect to the plasma. This allows imaging ofvelocities within the plasma to take place from different angles,providing a more detailed understanding of the material velocitiesthroughout the plasmas, such as a three-dimensional view of velocitieswithin the plasmas.

In another modification, the system is configured to capture multipleimages over a period of time. In this manner, the change in velocitiescan observed. In other embodiments, the detector may output videoinformation (a series of images close in time together) to theprocessor.

It is contemplated that the data processing and interface with thedetector may be performed using the exemplary computing elementsdescribed below and illustrated in FIG. 5. The computing elements may beestablished as part of a network or as a stand-alone system.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing example or representative computingdevices and associated elements that may be used to implement thesystems method and apparatus described herein. FIG. 5 shows an exampleof a generic computing device 500 and a generic mobile computing device550, which may be used with the techniques described here. Computingdevice 500 is intended to represent various forms of digital computers,such as laptops, desktops, workstations, personal digital assistants,servers, blade servers, mainframes, and other appropriate computers.Computing device 550 is intended to represent various forms of mobiledevices, such as personal digital assistants, cellular telephones, smartphones, and other similar computing devices. The components shown here,their connections and relationships, and their functions, are meant tobe exemplary only, and are not meant to limit implementations of theinventions described and/or claimed in this document.

Computing device 500 includes a processor 502, memory 504, a storagedevice 506, a high-speed interface or controller 508 connecting tomemory 504 and high-speed expansion ports 510, and a low-speed interfaceor controller 512 connecting to low-speed bus 514 and storage device506. Each of the components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, and 512, areinterconnected using various busses, and may be mounted on a commonmotherboard or in other manners as appropriate. The processor 502 canprocess instructions for execution within the computing device 500,including instructions stored in the memory 504A or on the storagedevice 506 to display graphical information for a GUI on an externalinput/output device, such as display 516 coupled to high-speedcontroller 508A. In other implementations, multiple processors and/ormultiple buses may be used, as appropriate, along with multiple memoriesand types of memory. Also, multiple computing devices 500 may beconnected, with each device providing portions of the necessaryoperations (e.g., as a server bank, a group of blade servers, or amulti-processor system).

The memory 504 stores information within the computing device 500. Inone implementation, the memory 504 is a volatile memory unit or units.In another implementation, the memory 504 is a non-volatile memory unitor units. The memory 504 may also be another form of computer-readablemedium, such as a magnetic or optical disk.

The storage device 506 is capable of providing mass storage for thecomputing device 500. In one implementation, the storage device 506 maybe or contain a computer-readable medium, such as a floppy disk device,a hard disk device, an optical disk device, or a tape device, a flashmemory or other similar solid state memory device, or an array ofdevices, including devices in a storage area network or otherconfigurations. A computer program product can be tangibly embodied inan information carrier. The computer program product may also containinstructions that, when executed, perform one or more methods, such asthose described above. The information carrier is a computer- ormachine-readable medium, such as the memory 504, the storage device 506,or memory on processor 502.

The high-speed controller 508 manages bandwidth-intensive operations forthe computing device 500, while the low-speed controller 512 manageslower bandwidth-intensive operations. Such allocation of functions isexemplary only. In one implementation, the high-speed controller 508 iscoupled to memory 504, display 516 (e.g., through a graphics processoror accelerator), and to high-speed expansion ports 510, which may acceptvarious expansion cards (not shown). In the implementation, low-speedcontroller 512 is coupled to storage device 506 and low-speed bus 514.The low-speed bus 514, which may include various communication ports(e.g., USB, Bluetooth, Ethernet, wireless Ethernet) may be coupled toone or more input/output devices, such as a keyboard, a pointing device,a scanner, or a networking device such as a switch or router, e.g.,through a network adapter.

The computing device 500 may be implemented in a number of differentforms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may be implemented as astandard server 520, or multiple times in a group of such servers. Itmay also be implemented as part of a rack server system 524. Inaddition, it may be implemented in a personal computer such as a laptopcomputer 522. Alternatively, components from computing device 200A maybe combined with other components in a mobile device (not shown), suchas device 550. Each of such devices may contain one or more of computingdevice 500, 550, and an entire system may be made up of multiplecomputing devices 500, 550 communicating with each other.

Computing device 550 includes a processor 552, memory 564, aninput/output device such as a display 554, a communication interface566, and a transceiver 568, among other components. The device 550 mayalso be provided with a storage device, such as a microdrive or otherdevice, to provide additional storage. Each of the components 550, 552,564, 554, 566, and 568, are interconnected using various buses, andseveral of the components may be mounted on a common motherboard or inother manners as appropriate.

The processor 552 can execute instructions within the computing device550, including instructions stored in the memory 564. The processor maybe implemented as a chipset of chips that include separate and multipleanalog and digital processors. The processor may provide, for example,for coordination of the other components of the device 550, such ascontrol of user interfaces, applications run by device 550, and wirelesscommunication by device 550.

Processor 552 may communicate with a user through control interface 558and display interface 556 coupled to a display 554. The display 554A maybe, for example, a TFT LCD (Thin-Film-Transistor Liquid Crystal Display)or an OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) display, or other appropriatedisplay technology. The display interface 556 may comprise appropriatecircuitry for driving the display 554 to present graphical and otherinformation to a user. The control interface 558 may receive commandsfrom a user and convert them for submission to the processor 552. Inaddition, an external interface 562 may be provided in communicationwith processor 552, so as to enable near area communication of device550 with other devices. External interface 562 may provide, for example,for wired communication in some implementations, or for wirelesscommunication in other implementations, and multiple interfaces may alsobe used.

The memory 564 stores information within the computing device 550. Thememory 564 can be implemented as one or more of a computer-readablemedium or media, a volatile memory unit or units, or a non-volatilememory unit or units. Expansion memory 574A may also be provided andconnected to device 550A through expansion interface 572, which mayinclude, for example, a SIMM (Single In Line Memory Module) cardinterface. Such expansion memory 574 may provide extra storage space fordevice 550, or may also store applications or other information fordevice 550. Specifically, expansion memory 574 may include instructionsto carry out or supplement the processes described above, and mayinclude secure information also. Thus, for example, expansion memory 574may be provide as a security module for device 550, and may beprogrammed with instructions that permit secure use of device 550. Inaddition, secure applications may be provided via the SIMM cards, alongwith additional information, such as placing identifying information onthe SIMM card in a non-hackable manner.

The memory may include, for example, flash memory and/or NVRAM memory,as discussed below. In one implementation, a computer program product istangibly embodied in an information carrier. The computer programproduct contains instructions that, when executed, perform one or moremethods, such as those described above. The information carrier is acomputer- or machine-readable medium, such as the memory 564, expansionmemory 574, or memory on processor 552, that may be received, forexample, over transceiver 568 or external interface 562.

Because the system may be located in a environmentally challengingenvironment, the device 550 may communicate wirelessly throughcommunication interface 566, which may include digital signal processingcircuitry where necessary. Communication interface 566A may provide forcommunications under various modes or protocols, such as GSM voicecalls, SMS, EMS, or MMS messaging, CDMA, TDMA, PDC, WCDMA, CDMA2000, orGPRS, among others. Such communication may occur, for example, throughradio-frequency transceiver 568. In addition, short-range communicationmay occur, such as using a Bluetooth, Wife, or other such transceiver(not shown). In addition, GPS (Global Positioning system) receivermodule 570 may provide additional navigation- and location-relatedwireless data to device 550, which may be used as appropriate byapplications running on device 550.

Device 550 may also communicate audibly using audio codec 560, which mayreceive spoken information from a user and convert it to usable digitalinformation. Audio codec 560 may likewise generate audible sound for auser, such as through a speaker, e.g., in a handset of device 550. Suchsound may include sound from voice telephone calls, may include recordedsound (e.g., voice messages, music files, etc.) and may also includesound generated by applications operating on device 550.

The computing device 550 may be implemented in a number of differentforms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may be implemented as acellular telephone 580. It may also be implemented as part of a smartphone 582, personal digital assistant, a computer tablet, or othersimilar mobile device.

Thus, various implementations of the systems and techniques describedhere can be realized in digital electronic circuitry, integratedcircuitry, specially designed ASICs (application specific integratedcircuits), computer hardware, firmware, software, and/or combinationsthereof. These various implementations can include implementation in oneor more computer programs that are executable and/or interpretable on aprogrammable system including at least one programmable processor, whichmay be special or general purpose, coupled to receive data andinstructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a storagesystem, at least one input device, and at least one output device.

These computer programs (also known as programs, software, softwareapplications or code) include machine instructions for a programmableprocessor, and can be implemented in a high-level procedural and/orobject-oriented programming language, and/or in assembly/machinelanguage. As used herein, the terms “machine-readable medium”“computer-readable medium” refers to any computer program product,apparatus and/or device (e.g., magnetic discs, optical disks, memory,Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)) used to provide machine instructionsand/or data to a programmable processor, including a machine-readablemedium that receives machine instructions as a machine-readable signal.The term “machine-readable signal” refers to any signal used to providemachine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor.

To provide for interaction with a user, the systems and techniquesdescribed here can be implemented on a computer having a display device(e.g., a CRT (cathode ray tube) or LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor)for displaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointingdevice (e.g., a mouse or a trackball) by which the user can provideinput to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide forinteraction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to theuser can be any form of sensory feedback (e.g., visual feedback,auditory feedback, or tactile feedback); and input from the user can bereceived in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input.

The systems and techniques described here can be implemented in acomputing system (e.g., computing device 500 and/or 550) that includes aback end component (e.g., as a data server), or that includes amiddleware component (e.g., an application server), or that includes afront end component (e.g., a client computer having a graphical userinterface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with animplementation of the systems and techniques described here), or anycombination of such back end, middleware, or front end components. Thecomponents of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium ofdigital data communication (e.g., a communication network). Examples ofcommunication networks include a local area network (“LAN”), a wide areanetwork (“WAN”), and the Internet.

The computing system can include clients and servers. A client andserver are generally remote from each other and typically interactthrough a communication network. The relationship of client and serverarises by virtue of computer programs running on the respectivecomputers and having a client-server relationship to each other.

In the example embodiment, computing devices 500 and 550 are configuredto receive and/or retrieve electronic documents from various othercomputing devices connected to computing devices 500 and 550 through acommunication network, and store these electronic documents within atleast one of memory 504, storage device 506, and memory 564. Computingdevices 500 and 550 are further configured to manage and organize theseelectronic documents within at least one of memory 504, storage device506, and memory 564 using the techniques described herein.

In addition, the logic flows depicted in the figures do not require theparticular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirableresults. In addition, other steps may be provided, or steps may beeliminated, from the described flows, and other components may be addedto, or removed from, the described systems. Accordingly, otherembodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

Also, the particular naming of the components, capitalization of terms,the attributes, data structures, or any other programming or structuralaspect is not mandatory or significant, and the mechanisms thatimplement the invention or its features may have different names,formats, or protocols. Further, the system may be implemented via acombination of hardware and software, as described, or entirely inhardware elements. Also, the particular division of functionalitybetween the various system components described herein is merelyexemplary, and not mandatory; functions performed by a single systemcomponent may instead be performed by multiple components, and functionsperformed by multiple components may instead performed by a singlecomponent.

Some portions of above description present features in terms ofalgorithms and symbolic representations of operations on information.These algorithmic descriptions and representations may be used by thoseskilled in the data processing arts to most effectively convey thesubstance of their work to others skilled in the art. These operations,while described functionally or logically, are understood to beimplemented by computer programs. Furthermore, it has also provenconvenient at times, to refer to these arrangements of operations asmodules or by functional names, without loss of generality.

Unless specifically stated otherwise as apparent from the abovediscussion, it is appreciated that throughout the description,discussions utilizing terms such as “processing” or “computing” or“calculating” or “determining” or “identifying” or “displaying” or“providing” or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computersystem, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates andtransforms data represented as physical (electronic) quantities withinthe computer system memories or registers or other such informationstorage, transmission or display devices.

Based on the foregoing specification, the above-discussed embodiments ofthe invention may be implemented using computer programming orengineering techniques including computer software, firmware, hardwareor any combination or subset thereof. Any such resulting program, havingcomputer-readable and/or computer-executable instructions, may beembodied or provided within one or more computer-readable media, therebymaking a computer program product, i.e., an article of manufacture,according to the discussed embodiments of the invention. The computerreadable media may be, for instance, a fixed (hard) drive, diskette,optical disk, magnetic tape, semiconductor memory such as read-onlymemory (ROM) or flash memory, etc., or any transmitting/receiving mediumsuch as the Internet or other communication network or link. The articleof manufacture containing the computer code may be made and/or used byexecuting the instructions directly from one medium, by copying the codefrom one medium to another medium, or by transmitting the code over anetwork.

While various embodiments of the invention have been described, it willbe apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many moreembodiments and implementations are possible that are within the scopeof this invention. In addition, the various features, elements, andembodiments described herein may be claimed or combined in anycombination or arrangement.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for detecting bulk motional velocitiesin a plasma, the system comprising: a crystal array comprising at leasttwo crystalline reflectors which provide multiple lines of sight formultiple wavelength bands, each reflector tuned to reflect x-rays of aparticular wavelength within a single emission band from the plasma to asingle point focus to create reflected x-rays; at least one detectorconfigured to receive reflected x-rays and generate detector outputdata, the detector output data being combinable to represent atwo-dimensional representation of bulk material velocity of the plasma;and a processing device including at least one memory and a display, theprocessing device configured to execute machine readable instructionsstored on the memory, which when executed, cause the system to: receivedetector output data from the detector, the detector output datacomprising information for monochromatic images corresponding to x-raysreflected by the at least two crystalline reflectors; and process thedetector output data to individually code the monochromatic images andoverlay the monochromic images to produce a composite image, thecomposite image showing Doppler shifts within the single emission band.2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one detectorcomprises film.
 3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at leastone detector comprises an image sensor.
 4. The system according to claim1, wherein an angle defined by one of the at least two crystallinereflectors and an x-ray path reflected from a crystalline reflector tothe at least one detector is between 80 and 90 degrees.
 5. The systemaccording to claim 1, further comprising at least one shield disposedbetween the plasma being observed and the at least one detector.
 6. Thesystem according to claim 1, further comprising: a collimator configuredto narrow a beam of the x-rays that are reflected by the crystal array;slits configured to control the divergence of the x-rays; and at leastone filter configured to block or filter out one or more wavelengths orenergy bands in the x-ray spectrum.
 7. A method for detecting bulkmotional velocities in a plasma, the method comprising: identifying apredetermined x-ray emission band emanating from the plasma; tuning twoor more crystalline reflectors within a crystal array to reflect x-rayswithin the predetermined emission band, to a single point focus; usingthe two or more crystalline reflectors reflecting the x-rays from theplasma onto a detector to form a two-dimensional image on the detectorrepresenting a two-dimensional area of the plasma, each detectorconfigured to focus to a single point focus, the detector comprising oneor more detectors; generating monochromatic two-dimensional imagescorresponding to the x-rays reflected by each of the two or morecrystalline reflectors to create two or more monochromatictwo-dimensional images; and combining the two or more monochromatictwo-dimensional images into a composite image to identify bulk motionalvelocities within the plasma.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the twoor more crystalline reflectors have a bandpass that is narrow comparedwith a Doppler profile of the emission band.
 9. The method of claim 7,wherein the crystalline reflectors are near-normal-incidence crystals.10. The method of claim 7, wherein the detector comprises at least oneof an image plate, a CCD camera, film, photographic film, or a gatedmicro channel plate detector.
 11. The method of claim 7, wherein thecombining step comprises color coding the monochromatic images such thateach monochromatic image is represented by a different color.
 12. Themethod of claim 7, wherein two or more crystal reflectors reflect x-raysemanating from the plasma at different orientations with respect to theplasma.
 13. The method of claim 7, wherein a meridional plane of planeof the crystalline reflectors is set at the equatorial plane of theplasma.
 14. A system for detecting bulk motional velocities in a plasma,the system comprising: a crystal array tuned to reflect x-rays having apredetermined emission line to a point focus, such that at least twocrystals in the array are configured to reflect x-rays of a differentwavelength to form a two-dimensional; one or more detectors configuredto detect x-rays reflected from the crystal array and receive thetwo-dimensional image reflected from the crystal array; one or moreshields configured to block the one or more detectors from x-raysemanating directly from the plasma; a processor configured to receivetwo-dimensional image information from the one or more detectors, thetwo-dimensional image information comprising monochromatic images of thex-rays reflected by the crystal array, the processor further beingconfigured to combine the monochromatic two-dimensional images into acomposite two-dimensional image showing Doppler shifts within theemission line, such that different x-ray wavelengths are represented inthe composite two-dimensional image as different monochromatic colors.15. The system of claim 14, wherein the crystal array comprises two ormore crystalline reflectors tuned to different center wavelengths abouta center wavelength of a profile of the predetermined emission line. 16.The system of claim 14, wherein the composite image is a color codedimage of the monochromatic images overlaid on top of each other.
 17. Thesystem of claim 14, wherein an angle defined by the one of thecrystalline reflectors and an x-ray path reflected from the onecrystalline reflector to the one or more detectors is between 80 and 90degrees.
 18. The system of claim 14, further comprising: a collimatorconfigured to narrow a beam of the x-rays that are reflected by thecrystal array; slits configured to control the divergence of the x-rays;and at least one filter configured to block or filter out one or morewavelengths or energy bands in the x-ray spectrum.